Sree Satyendra Nath Bose
Albert Einstain
Thomas Higgs at the tunnel of CERN Before I start spreading petals of my own ideas to deserving readers, here are some scientific data, which is a must read material to facilitate in the backdrop of science and the presence signature of Transcendental Power (GOD) in the universe: - (Scientific Source:- Compiled from Different websites pertaining to this great experiment).
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: [C]onseil [E]uropéen pour la [R]echerche [N]ucléaire ), known as CERN has created a milestone on 09/10/2008."The Large Hadron Collider(LHC) starts up. Hadron is the cluster of protons & neutrons. Its experiments are expected to address questions such as what gives matter its mass, why nature prefers matter to anti-matter, and how matter evolved from the first instants of the universe's existence."
"The Higgs boson or BEH Mechanism, popularised as the "God Particle", (Although,the nomenclature was "Goddamn Particle" at first.) is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model of particle physics; and is the only Standard Model particle not yet observed. An experimental observation of it would help to explain how otherwise mass less elementary particles cause matter to have mass. More specifically, the Higgs boson would explain the difference between the mass less photon and the relatively massive W and Z bosons. Elementary particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (caused by the photon) and the weak force (caused by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter; thus, if it exists, the Higgs boson is an integral and pervasive component of the material world।"
Thomas Higgs is a famous physicist from Ireland। Bosons are named after the famous Indian physicist, Sree Satyendra Nath Bose. The very concept of this great experiment lies at the womb of thoughts of this great Indian.The Higgs Boson has existence,(shortly known as H. Bosons) but it is yet to be discovered or observed.The mass less photon in the light rays do not have mass, and that is the reason, why our body is not disintegrated into millions of particles by the abundant sun rays we get and for that matter we are not hurt by even the light emitted by the illuminated things or gadgets, we have in our houses.
There are four forces dominating in the universe:-
Gravitation.
Electromagnetism.
Weak Interaction.
Strong Interaction.
Short introduction to all these four forces:-
1.Gravitation is by far the weakest interaction, but at long distances is the most important force. There are three reasons why gravity's strength relative to other forces becomes important at long distances. The first is that gravity has an infinite range, like that of electromagnetism. The second reason that gravity is important at long distances is because all masses are positive and therefore gravity's interaction cannot be screened like in electromagnetism. The third is that gravitational force cannot be absorbed or transformed, and so is permanent. Thus large celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies dominantly feel gravitational forces. In comparison, the total electric charge of these bodies is zero because half of all charges are negative. In addition, unlike the other interactions, gravity acts universally on all matter. There are no objects that lack a gravitational "charge".Because of its long range, gravity is responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies, black holes and the expansion of the universe, as well as more elementary astronomical phenomena like the orbits of planets, and everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground; people are limited in how high they can jump.Gravitation was the first kind of interaction which was described by a mathematical theory. In ancient times, Aristotle theorized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this was not the case — if friction due to air resistance is neglected, all objects accelerate toward the ground at the same rate. Isaac Newton's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the general behaviour of gravity. In 1915, Albert Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity, a more accurate description of gravity in terms of the geometry of space-time.An area of active research today involves merging the theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics into a more general theory of quantum gravity. It is widely believed that in a theory of quantum gravity, gravity would be mediated by a mass less spin 2 particle which is known as the graviton. Gravitons are hypothetical particles not yet observed.Although general relativity appears to present an accurate theory of gravity in the non-quantum mechanical limit, there are a number of alternate theories of gravity. Those under any serious consideration by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible.
2. Electromagnetism is the force that acts between electrically charged particles. This phenomenon includes the electrostatic force, acting between charges at rest, and the combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between charges moving relative to each other.Electromagnetism is also an infinite-ranged force, but it is much stronger than gravity, and therefore describes almost all phenomena of our everyday experience, ranging from the impenetrability of macroscopic bodies, to lasers and radios, to the structure of atoms and metals, to phenomena such as friction and rainbows.Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 1800s that scientists discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, Maxwell's equations had rigorously quantified the unified phenomenon. In 1905, Einstein's theory of special relativity resolved the issue of the constancy of the speed of light, and Einstein also explained the photoelectric effect by theorizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac unified quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism; the theory of quantum electrodynamics was completed in the 1940s by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.
3. The weak interaction or weak nuclear force is responsible for some phenomena at the scales of the atomic nucleus, such as beta decay. Electromagnetism and the weak force are theoretically understood to be two aspects of a unified electroweak interaction — this realization was the first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model. In electroweak theory, the carriers of the weak force are massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons. The weak interaction is the only known interaction in which parity is not conserved; it is left-right asymmetric. It even breaks CP symmetry. However, it does conserve CPT.
4. The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated force because it behaves differently at different distances. At distances larger than 10 femtometers, the strong force is practically unobservable, which is why it wasn't noticed until the beginning of the 20th century.After the nucleus was discovered, it was clear that a new force was needed to keep the positive protons in the nucleus from flying out. The force had to be much stronger than electromagnetism, so that the nucleus could be stable even though the protons were so close together, squeezed down to a volume which is 10-15 of the volume of an atom. From the short range of the force, Hideki Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV. The pion was discovered in 1947 and this discovery marks the beginning of the modern era of particle physics.Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s. An extremely complicated theory of the strongly interacting particles, known as hadrons, was developed. Most notably, the pions were understood to be oscillations of vacuum condensates, the rho and omega vector bosons were proposed by Sakurai to be force carrying particles for approximate symmetries of Isospin and hypercharge, and the heavier particles were grouped by Geoffrey Chew, Edward K. Burdett and Steven Frautschi into families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of strings. None of these approaches led directly to the fundamental theory, but each of these were deep insights in their own right.Throughout the sixties, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of QCD as simple models for the interactions of quarks, starting with Murray Gell-Mann who along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. The first to suggest the gluons of QCD explicitly were the Korean physicist Moo-Young Han and Japanese Yoichiro Nambu, who introduced the quark color charge and hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field. but at that time, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were only fractionally charged on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and Harald Fritsch proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered asymptotic freedom in this theory, which allowed them to make contact with experiment. They came to the conclusion that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD, since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined.Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein, and Valentine Zakharov were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. First-principles computer calculations by Kenneth Wilson in 1980 established that QCD will confine quarks, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty. From this point on, QCD was the established theory of the strong interactions.QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting with 8 photon-like particles called gluons. The gluons interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD is not only responsible for the short-distance properties of quarks, but for the long-distance string-like behavior discovered by Chew and Frautschi. Sree Satyendra Nath Bose & Albert Einstain, both tried to assimilate the last three forces, till to their last breath.
Since, the scientific part is over, let us revert back to our original thoughts. India has donated a giant statue of Nataraj (नटराज) at CERN, which signifies the Tandava (तांडव) dance of Lord Shiva. The dance is about the creation and destruction of the world. The significance is to remind the world about the Indian philosophy of the formation of the world. About how the world, came into existence and how it will end. The rythm of तांडव(Tandava) dance is the cultural enunciation of the cosmic questions.These thoughts of mine will be explained on the basis of VEDIC PHILOSOPHY.
बीज,बिंदु ,नाद (Beej, Bindu, Naad).
Thease 3 words require explanations. These have to be analized on the basis of शिव & शक्ति (SHIVA & SHAKTI).
Generally, the `consciousness'(चैतन्य ) is known as SHIVA i.e. शिव। Now when this SHIVA is having the "ABILITY"(सामर्थ ) , then this ability is known as शक्ति (Shakti). Then only the creation starts. We may recall that the beginning of our planet Earth is about 13,730 crore years ago, as per the scientists . There is about +10,000 years difference, as we get from the Sanskrit texts now avilable. At the very begining, there was only energy or शक्ति (Shakti)- according to both Sanskrit texts & scientists . कला or Fractions were there,according to Sanskrit texts.Scientists say, Quark & Gluon were there and they had a bond to form protons, neutrons, electrons.कला or Fractions are the Quark & Gluon . Why? The answer is:- That whichever is added with कला that becomes सकल। स is a prefix , meaning "with". So, सकल means with fractions, it is a wholesome. The another synonym of कला is प्रकृति or nature.
Again,the H bosons, are said to have supposed existance. According to the Rishis,(रिशि) truth can not be created or destroyed. Energy also can't be created or destroyed.That, whatever is created in a place and has supposed existance is ANITYA (अनित्य). (That which has supposed existence.) Whatever is TRUTH, has perpetual & eternal existence. There is no dearth of Truth. When the Shiva has no `consciousness'(चैतन्य ), then that state is known as NIRGUNA (निर्गुण ). That, the Shiva has no ability or inert .As per science, the matter is inert although it possesses proton, nutron & electron. So, this state is Dormant State (सुप्त).Again:-
"Mathematical analysis shows that the sum total of positive energy in the universe equals to the sum total of negative energy. Therefore,strange as it may sound, the total energy of universe is zero.............................................But wait a second ; how can something as big, bright,and busy as the universe have zero energy? A hint:- It can. if the energyof inflation arose from something else, something with a value of zero."(CODE NAME GOD, Page-160, By Dr. Mani Bhaumik)
The emergence of Shakti(शक्ति) is known as PARASHAKTI(पराशक्ति ). The congenial atmosphere to create PARASHAKTI(पराशक्ति ) is known as NAAD(नाद)। This is exactly, what the Scientist are doing right now at CERN.
NAAD can now be defined as :- When all the energy wants to be evaluted.
When all the energy is centrified, concentrated and have got to act or want to create is known as BINDU(बिन्दु) or Point.
What is defination of Point(BINDU)in Geometry?
A point has got existance but no dimensions. That means no length, breadth and height.
What the Science says now?
The planet Earth had a point existance. From this point it blew up like a baloon and still blowing up, i.e started inflating.(Thanks to COBE- Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite)
Seed:- बीज
In a seed, the whole tree is there with all its quality and creative energy. The branches, sub branches, all are inside it. What it requires is- proper nourishment of that SEED.The nature of nourishment only decides whether the plant will come out of the seed.
So the SEED is the Root & the energy is indicative. Coupled with Nourishment the plant will come out.
Seed is the source of all creations. Accepted by both Science & the Philosophy of Sanatan Dharma.
Now, Dark energy & dark matter.
According to iconology of sanatan dharma, What is the color of Kali, Jagannath? What they depict?
Science Part:-
Rotation Curve of Galaxy:
Readings: Dark MatterDark Energy
Dynamical studies of the Universe began in the late 1950's. This meant that instead of just looking and classifying galaxies, astronomers began to study their internal motions (rotation for disk galaxies) and their interactions with each other, as in clusters. The question was soon developed of whether we were observing the mass or the light in the Universe. Most of what we see in galaxies is starlight. So clearly, the brighter the galaxy, the more stars, therefore the more massive the galaxy. By the early 1960's, there were indications that this was not always true, called the missing mass problem.
The first indications that there is a significant fraction of missing matter in the Universe was from studies of the rotation of our own Galaxy, the Milky Way. The orbital period of the Sun around the Galaxy gives us a mean mass for the amount of material inside the Sun's orbit. But, a detailed plot of the orbital speed of the Galaxy as a function of radius reveals the distribution of mass within the Galaxy. The simplest type of rotation is wheel rotation shown below.
Rotation following Kepler's 3rd law is shown above as planet-like or differential rotation. Notice that the orbital speeds falls off as you go to greater radii within the Galaxy. This is called a Keplerian rotation curve.
To determine the rotation curve of the Galaxy, stars are not used due to interstellar extinction. Instead, 21-cm maps of neutral hydrogen are used. When this is done, one finds that the rotation curve of the Galaxy stays flat out to large distances, instead of falling off as in the figure above. This means that the mass of the Galaxy increases with increasing distance from the center.
The surprising thing is there is very little visible matter beyond the Sun's orbital distance from the center of the Galaxy. So, the rotation curve of the Galaxy indicates a great deal of mass, but there is no light out there. In other words, the halo of our Galaxy is filled with a mysterious dark matter of unknown composition and type.
Cluster Masses:
Most galaxies occupy groups or clusters with membership ranging from 10 to hundreds of galaxies. Each cluster is held together by the gravity from each galaxy. The more mass, the higher the velocities of the members, and this fact can be used to test for the presence of unseen matter.
When these measurements were performed, it was found that up to 95% of the mass in clusters is not seen, i.e. dark. Since the physics of the motions of galaxies is so basic (pure Newtonian physics), there is no escaping the conclusion that a majority of the matter in the Universe has not been identified, and that the matter around us that we call `normal' is special. The question that remains is whether dark matter is baryonic (normal) or a new substance, non-baryonic.
Mass-to-Luminosity Ratios:
Exactly how much of the Universe is in the form of dark matter is a mystery and difficult to determine, obviously because its not visible. It has to be inferred by its gravitational effects on the luminous matter in the Universe (stars and gas) and is usually expressed as the mass-to-luminosity ratio (M/L). A high M/L indicates lots of dark matter, a low M/L indicates that most of the matter is in the form of baryonic matter, stars and stellar remnants plus gas.
A important point to the study of dark matter is how it is distributed. If it is distributed like the luminous matter in the Universe, that most of it is in galaxies. However, studies of M/L for a range of scales shows that dark matter becomes more dominate on larger scales.
Most importantly, on very large scales of 100 Mpc's (Mpc = megaparsec, one million parsecs and kpc = 1000 parsecs) the amount of dark matter inferred is near the value needed to close the Universe. Thus, it is for two reasons that the dark matter problem is important, one to determine what is the nature of dark matter, is it a new form of undiscovered matter? The second is the determine if the amount of dark matter is sufficient to close the Universe.
Baryonic Dark Matter:
We know of the presence of dark matter from dynamical studies. But we also know from the abundance of light elements that there is also a problem in our understanding of the fraction of the mass of the Universe that is in normal matter or baryons. The fraction of light elements (hydrogen, helium, lithium, boron) indicates that the density of the Universe in baryons is only 2 to 4% what we measure as the observed density.
It is not too surprising to find that at least some of the matter in the Universe is dark since it requires energy to observe an object, and most of space is cold and low in energy. Can dark matter be some form of normal matter that is cold and does not radiate any energy? For example, dead stars?
Once a normal star has used up its hydrogen fuel, it usually ends its life as a white dwarf star, slowly cooling to become a black dwarf. However, the timescale to cool to a black dwarf is thousands of times longer than the age of the Universe. High mass stars will explode and their cores will form neutron stars or black holes. However, this is rare and we would need 90% of all stars to go supernova to explain all of the dark matter.
Another avenue of thought is to consider low mass objects. Stars that are very low in mass fail to produce their own light by thermonuclear fusion. Thus, many, many brown dwarf stars could make up the dark matter population. Or, even smaller, numerous Jupiter-sized planets, or even plain rocks, would be completely dark outside the illumination of a star. The problem here is that to make-up the mass of all the dark matter requires huge numbers of brown dwarfs, and even more Jupiter's or rocks. We do not find many of these objects nearby, so to presume they exist in the dark matter halos is unsupported.
Non-Baryonic Dark Matter:
An alternative idea is to consider forms of dark matter not composed of quarks or leptons, rather made from some exotic material. If the neutrino has mass, then it would make a good dark matter candidate since it interacts weakly with matter and, therefore, is very hard to detect. However, neutrinos formed in the early Universe would also have mass, and that mass would have a predictable effect on the cluster of galaxies, which is not seen.
Another suggestion is that some new particle exists similar to the neutrino, but more massive and, therefore, more rare. This Weakly Interacting Massive Particle (WIMP) would escape detection in our modern particle accelerators, but no other evidence of its existence has been found.
The more bizarre proposed solutions to the dark matter problem require the use of little understood relics or defects from the early Universe. One school of thought believes that topological defects may have appears during the phase transition at the end of the GUT era. These defects would have had a string-like form and, thus, are called cosmic strings. Cosmic strings would contain the trapped remnants of the earlier dense phase of the Universe. Being high density, they would also be high in mass but are only detectable by their gravitational radiation.
Lastly, the dark matter problem may be an illusion. Rather than missing matter, gravity may operate differently on scales the size of galaxies. This would cause us to overestimate the amount of mass, when it is the weaker gravity to blame. This is no evidence of modified gravity in our laboratory experiments to date.
Current View of Dark Matter:
The current observations and estimates of dark matter is that 20% of dark matter is probably in the form of massive neutrinos, even though that mass is uncertain. Another 5 to 10% is in the form of stellar remnants and low mass, brown dwarfs. However, the combination of both these mixtures only makes about 30% the amount mass necessary to close the Universe. Thus, the Universe appears to be open.
Dark Energy:
The current observations and estimates of dark matter is that 20% of dark matter is probably in the form of massive neutrinos, even though that mass is uncertain. The another 5% to 10% is in the form of stellar remnants and low mass, brown dwarfs. The rest of dark matter is called CDM (cold dark matter) of unknown origin, but probably cold and heavy. The combination of all these mixtures only makes 20 to 30% the amount mass necessary to close the Universe. Thus, the Universe appears to be open, i.e. M is 0.3.
With the convergence of our measurement of Hubble's constant and M, the end appeared in site for the determination of the geometry and age of our Universe. However, all was throw into turmoil recently with the discovery of dark energy. Dark energy is implied by the fact that the Universe appears to be accelerating, rather than decelerating, as measured by distant supernovae.
This new observation implies that something else is missing from our understanding of the dynamics of the Universe, in math terms this means that something is missing from Friedmann's equation. That missing something is the cosmological constant, .
In modern cosmology, the different classes of Universes (open, flat or closed) are known as Friedmann universes and described by a simple equation:
In this equation, `R' represents the scale factor of the Universe (think of it as the radius of the Universe in 4D spacetime), and H is Hubble's constant, how fast the Universe is expanding. Everything in this equation is a constant, i.e. to be determined from observations. These observables can be broken down into three parts gravity (matter density), curvature and pressure or negative energy given by the cosmological constant.
Historically, we assumed that gravity was the only important force in the Universe, and that the cosmological constant was zero. Thus, if we measure the density of matter, then we could extract the curvature of the Universe (and its future history) as a solution to the equation. New data has indicated that a negative pressure, or dark energy, does exist and we no longer assume that the cosmological constant is zero.
Each of these parameters can close the Universe in terms of turn-around and collapse. Instead of thinking about the various constants in real numbers, we perfer to consider the ratio of the parameter to the value that matches the critical value between open and closed Universes. For example, the density of matter exceeds the critical value, the Universe is closed. We refer to these ratios as (subscript M for matter, k for curvature, for the cosmological constant). For various reasons due to the physics of the Big Bang, the sum of the various must equal one. And for reasons we will see in a later lecture, the curvature is expected to be zero, allowing the rest to be shared between matter and the cosmological constant.
The search for the value of matter density is a much more difficult undertaking. The luminous mass of the Universe is tied up in stars. Stars are what we see when we look at a galaxy and it fairly easy to estimate the amount of mass tied up in stars, gas, planets and assorted rocks. This is contains an estimate of what is called the baryonic mass of the Universe, i.e. all the stuff made of baryons = protons and neutrons. When these numbers are caluclated it is found that for baryons is only 0.02, a very open Universe. However, when we examine motion of objects in the Universe, we quickly realize that most of the mass of the Universe is not seen, i.e. dark matter, which makes this estimate of to be much too low. So we must account for this dark matter in our estimate.
Einstein first introduced to produce a static Universe in his original equations. However, until the supernova data, there was no data to support its existence in other than a mathematical way.
The implication here is that there is some sort of pressure in the fabric of the Universe that is pushing the expansion faster. A pressure is usually associated with some sort of energy, we have named dark energy. Like dark matter, we do not know its origin or characteristics. Only that is produces a contribution of 0.7 to , called , so that matter plus dark energy equals an of 1, a flat Universe.
With a cosmological constant, the possible types of Universes are numerous. Almost any kind of massive or light, open or closed curvature, open or closed history is possible. Also, with high 's, the Universe could race away.
Fortunately, observations, such as the SN data and measurements of allow us to constraint the possible models for the Universe. In terms of for k (curvature), M (mass) and (where the critical values are =1), the new cosmology is given by the following diagram.
SN data gives =0.7 and M=0.3. This results in k=0, or a flat curvature. This is sometimes referred to as the Benchmark Model which gives an age of the Universe of 12.5 billion years.
TO BE CONTINUED....................................................................
